History of Natural Dyes: How do we know about Natural Dyes?

Natural dyes are an expansive area of chemistry and science, that has been reserached for millennia. And yes, I do mean 'millennia' as a measurement not an exaggeration. The development of pigments and color research peaked during the 19th and 20th century, but ecological concerns have haulted most of the development and turned to degradation of dyes and pigments. Join me as I explain my research thus far into the history and development of natural pigments and dyes.

Brief History of Natural Dyes and Pigments

Humans have been using natural dye and pigments since the 150,000 - 30,000 BCE (Before Common Era). This is during the Middle Stone Age/ Middle Paleolithic Period in Africa and Europe. If anyone has studied art-history, they would remember studying the Blombos cave in South Africa or the Chauvet cave in France. These Paleolithic cave paintings creates our first glimpse into the world's use of art and color.

Most of these first signs of color and art in Paleolithic life were mineral pigments foraged and mined from the earth. Ochre clay dates back to this period of cave paintings and possible skin decoration/protection. Mineral pigments would be abundant and easily found all across the planet. That is why we see similar cave paintings in Africa, Europe, and in the western hemisphere in Puerto Rico. Ochre is the first use of a common natural dye element, Fe or Iron. Iron minerals can create a range in color from red, orange, to yellow. Black pigment was achieved through producing carbon or burnt wood from fires.

The diversification of color and pigments didn't come until the Neolithic and Bronze Age of 6000-1200 BCE. The Neolithic era was brought on by the advancement of agriculture. Human society had a collective shift from a nomadic to stationary lifestyle. As civilizations developed so did the culture and architecture of the ancient world. At this time, we had tons of experience with the natural minerals of the earth including, clay, fire, carbon, and water. It's funny how two of these natural minerals are life-sustaining elements and compounds. In a poetic nature, carbon (C) and water (H2O) sustain life and creates art. Pigments began to be used in ceramics, painting, temples, and homes throughout Mesopotamia and in the Americas.

Pre-historic Blues

Blue is an interesting color and I would even say is the most desired hue in art, architecture, culture and our lives. Again, this may be a connection to our desire for H2O and our connection to the vast blue oceans and sky. At least that is the connection created by the Egyptians. Around the Neolithic period and Bronze Age, Egypt renowned for its expansive knowledge and accomplishments, created their own recipe called Egyptian Blue.

Prior to the usage of Egyptian Blue, the blue color was mined as a mineral called lapis lazuli. This mineral pigment was mined from deposits in Afghanistan. The process and limitation of lapis lazuli deposits made the pigment expense, almost as expensive as gold. The high cost associated with the pigment is the reason Egyptian scholars and artisans searched for a new form of blue, Egyptian Blue, circa 2900-2750 BCE.

The new mineral compound was revolutionary for the time, being a most cost effective colorant in clay, jewelry, and painting. The imaged above shows ancient Egyptian jewelry, a beaded string and an armlet, from the New Kingdom era in Egypt (1479-1425 BCE). Egypt capitalized on this compound and began trading it as a major export with neighboring mediterranean civilizations including the Roman Empire, Greek Empire, Assyrian Empire, and smaller kingdoms across Mesopotamia.

It isn't until about 500 BCE that we see other cultures and civilizations creating their own blue pigments. Chinese Blue, or Han Blue, was created near the time of the Chinese War. This new recipe and compound for Han Blue is very similar to the Egyptian Blue in it's micro-chemistry. However this isn't the first time China uses blue as a color in their art and culture.

Before the development of the Han Blue, China artisans would use cobalt and azurite as mineral pigments for glazes and glass. Even though China was using cobalt and azurite these pigments were just as difficult to mine and produce as lapis lazuli in the Middle East. Han Blue is the first instance where we see China utilizing a blue pigment as paints and pastels for various applications, which are not suitable for such applications.

Below is an image of two octagonal sticks made of Chinese Blue, 206 BCE - 9 CE.

From the Bronze Age to Modern Science

Back in the Mediterranean, more pigments were developed but various cultures. The Phoenicians, believed to have developed their own purple color called "Tyrian" at the end of the Bronze Age (1550-1200 BCE), the pigment being sourced from snails. The Phoenicians became the main producers of purple pigments and textiles, establishing purple as a symbol of wealth and royalty. Only people with wealth and power wear garments made of Tyrian purple, making the pigment as valuable as gold.

The Middle Ages saw a halt in the development and production of pigments or dyes. Pigments and dyes became scarce across Europe, but the knowledge wasn't completely lost. Civilizations continue to experiment and use local plants and insects to create various dyes. The Middle Ages (5th - 15th centuries) saw a prevalence of earth tones, mineral pigments, and guilding. Gold guilding was a desired practice as it was cheaper than most pigments and provided a reflective surface for paintings, sculptures, and architecture.

This exploration of local plants and insects led to the discovery of many dyes of today. The Middle Ages paved the way to the understanding of dyes like weld, woad, indigo, dyer's broom, madder, and many more. It wasn't until the European exploration and imperialism that we see trade of these various dyes and pigments become global. For example, dyes from India, like madder, made their way to England and become a significant symbol for the English Royal Army, reflected in the red coats. The red color derived from the root of the madder plant created the well-known uniforms for the English during this colonial period.

In 1630, science began to show great promise in the development of dyes and pigments. Cornelius Drebbel mixed cochineal red, derived from insect scales, with tin to improve the natural dyes, arguablly creating the first "synthetic" dye. The Red Lake, the first pigment to be synthesized by Diesbach in 1704, established a standard practice for generating sythetic pigments. As time progressed, more and more pigments were discovered in a varying levels of toxicity. Most of these new pigments contain metals such as arsenic, lead, and mercury.

In 1854, the first sythetic dye, called Mauveine, was patented by Henry Perkin, and derived from coal tar. This patent solves the manufacturing issues with previously derived dyes and pigments. Now, industry could take over and produce new synthetic dyes at a rapid pace. Additionally these new synthetic dyes become cheaper and more readily available than traditional, natural dyes.

Dyes, Pigments, and the new Synthetics

The first chemistry lesson needed to understand natural dyes is the concept of solubility. Soluble refers to a substance's ability to be dissolved, more specifically for dyers, in water (H2O). Insoluble means a substance cannot be dissolved. This key distinction separates dyes (soluble) and pigments (insoluble). When a dye plant is placed in boiling water, the dye molecules are extracted creating a dye solution. This is different from placing pigments in water, which may cause a visual color change, but the pigment will eventually settle resulting in a clear separation between the water and the pigments.

When you have a dye solution, the dye molecules are suspended in the water and become difficult to separate. However, evaporation becomes a dyer's friend. By simmering the dye solution, you can evaporate the water. Once completely dry, the remaining powder is called dye extract. The extract remains soluble and can be used again to create another dye solution in the future.

There is a method in converting dye molecules into pigments. These dye pigments have a unique quality of being insoluble in water. However, other solvents can be used to thin or thicken the pigments creating a variety of dye paints and inks from the resulting dye pigments. This means there are endless possibilities with using natrual dyes and going through these multiple steps to create different recipes. But imagine the impact of using one source material, a synthetic dye, and being able to create paint, pastels, pigments, inks, and more after one synthesis process. Synthetic dyes and pigments offer that convenience.

The reason for using natural dyes over synthetic changes from person to person. For me, it's a safer and more controlled approach to my practice as a fiber artist. Natural dyes allow for greater control over color and pigments in an enviornment like a home kitchen or backyard. They don't require advanced lab equipement, but rather tools you might already have at home. Synthetic dyes also have a guaranteed negative impact on the enviornment compared to some natural dye processes. However, there are pros and cons to every process and sometimes achieving lightfastness with natural dyes involves using harsh chemicals. For this reason, I prioritize a sustainable practice over a purely ecological practice. I care more about sustaining my health, finances, and control over polutants. I consider all of this when I dye from home. I may in the future dive deeper into this discussion of sustainability and enviornmentalism, but for now I create art for myself and others.